Distance relays respond to the voltage and current, i.e., the impedance, at the relay location. The impedance per mile is fairly constant so these relays respond to the distance between the relay location and the fault location.
As the power systems become more complex and the fault current varies with changes in generation and system configuration, directional overcurrent relays become difficult to apply and to set for all contingencies, whereas the distance relay setting is constant for a wide variety of changes external to the protected line.
There are three general distance relay types as shown in Fig. 9.32. Each is distinguished by its application and its operating characteristic.
Impedance Relay
The impedance relay has a circular characteristic centered at the origin of the R-X diagram. It is nondirectional and is used primarily as a fault detector.
Admittance Relay
The admittance relay is the most commonly used distance relay. It is the tripping relay in pilot schemes and as the backup relay in step distance schemes. Its characteristic passes through the origin of the R-X diagram and is therefore directional.
In the electromechanical design it is circular, and in the solid state design, it can be shaped to correspond to the transmission line impedance.
Reactance Relay
The reactance relay is a straight-line characteristic that responds only to the reactance of the protected line. It is nondirectional and is used to supplement the admittance relay as a tripping relay to make the overall protection independent of resistance.
It is particularly useful on short lines where the fault arc resistance is the same order of magnitude as the line length. Figure 9.33 shows a three-zone step distance relaying scheme that provides instantaneous protection over 80–90% of the protected line section (Zone 1) and time-delayed protection over the remainder of the line (Zone 2) plus backup protection over the adjacent line section. Zone 3 also provides backup protection for adjacent lines sections.
In a three-phase power system, 10 types of faults are possible: three single phase-to-ground, three phase-to-phase, three double phase-to-ground, and one three-phase fault. It is essential that the relays provided have the same setting regardless of the type of fault.
This is possible if the relays are connected to respond to delta voltages and currents. The delta quantities are defined as the difference between any two phase quantities, for example, Ea – Eb is the delta quantity between phases a and b.
In general, for a multiphase fault between phases x and y,
Ex-Ey/ Ix-Iy = IZ
where x and y can be a, b, or c and Z1 is the positive sequence impedance between the relay location and the fault. For ground distance relays, the faulted phase voltage, and a compensated faulted phase current must be used.
Ex / ( Ix+mI0) = Z1
where m is a constant depending on the line impedances, and I0 is the zero sequence current in the
transmission line. A full complement of relays consists of three phase distance relays and three ground
distance relays. This is the preferred protective scheme for high voltage and extra high voltage systems.
Pilot Protection
As can be seen from Fig. 9.33, step distance protection does not offer instantaneous clearing of faults over 100% of the line segment. In most cases this is unacceptable due to system stability considerations. To cover the 10–20% of the line not covered by Zone 1, the information regarding the location of the fault is transmitted from each terminal to the other terminal(s).
A communication channel is used for this transmission. These pilot channels can be over power line carrier, microwave, fiberoptic, or wire pilot. Although the underlying principles are the same regardless of the pilot channel, there are specific design details that are imposed by this choice.
Power line carrier uses the protected line itself as the channel, superimposing a high frequency signal on top of the 60 Hz power frequency. Since the line being protected is also the medium used to actuate the protective devices, a blocking signal is used.
This means that a trip will occur at both ends of the line unless a signal is received from the remote end.
Microwave or fiberoptic channels are independent of the transmission line being protected so a tripping signal can be used.
Wire pilot channels are limited by the impedance of the copper wire and are used at lower voltages where the distance between the terminals is not great, usually less than 10 miles.
Directional Comparison
The most common pilot relaying scheme in the U.S. is the directional comparison blocking scheme, using power line carrier. The fundamental principle upon which this scheme is based utilizes the fact that, at a given terminal, the direction of a fault either forward or backward is easily determined by a directional relay.
By transmitting this information to the remote end, and by applying appropriate logic, both ends can determine whether a fault is within the protected line or external to it. Since the power line itself is used as the communication medium, a blocking signal is used.
Transfer Tripping
If the communication channel is independent of the power line, a tripping scheme is a viable protection scheme. Using the same directional relay logic to determine the location of a fault, a tripping signal is sent to the remote end.
To increase security, there are several variations possible. A direct tripping signal can be sent, or additional underreaching or overreaching directional relays can be used to supervise the tripping function and increase security.
An underreaching relay sees less than 100% of the protected line, i.e., Zone 1. An overreaching relay sees beyond the protected line such as Zone 2 or 3.
Phase Comparison
Phase comparison is a differential scheme that compares the phase angle between the currents at the ends of the line. If the currents are essentially in phase, there is no fault in the protected section.
If these currents are essentially 180o out of phase, there is a fault within the line section. Any communication link can be used.
Pilot Wire
Pilot wire relaying is a form of differential line protection similar to phase comparison, except that the phase currents are compared over a pair of metallic wires.
The pilot channel is often a rented circuit from the local telephone company.
However, as the telephone companies are replacing their wired facilities with microwave or fiberoptics, this protection must be closely monitored.
As the power systems become more complex and the fault current varies with changes in generation and system configuration, directional overcurrent relays become difficult to apply and to set for all contingencies, whereas the distance relay setting is constant for a wide variety of changes external to the protected line.
There are three general distance relay types as shown in Fig. 9.32. Each is distinguished by its application and its operating characteristic.
Impedance Relay
The impedance relay has a circular characteristic centered at the origin of the R-X diagram. It is nondirectional and is used primarily as a fault detector.
Admittance Relay
The admittance relay is the most commonly used distance relay. It is the tripping relay in pilot schemes and as the backup relay in step distance schemes. Its characteristic passes through the origin of the R-X diagram and is therefore directional.
In the electromechanical design it is circular, and in the solid state design, it can be shaped to correspond to the transmission line impedance.
Reactance Relay
The reactance relay is a straight-line characteristic that responds only to the reactance of the protected line. It is nondirectional and is used to supplement the admittance relay as a tripping relay to make the overall protection independent of resistance.
It is particularly useful on short lines where the fault arc resistance is the same order of magnitude as the line length. Figure 9.33 shows a three-zone step distance relaying scheme that provides instantaneous protection over 80–90% of the protected line section (Zone 1) and time-delayed protection over the remainder of the line (Zone 2) plus backup protection over the adjacent line section. Zone 3 also provides backup protection for adjacent lines sections.
In a three-phase power system, 10 types of faults are possible: three single phase-to-ground, three phase-to-phase, three double phase-to-ground, and one three-phase fault. It is essential that the relays provided have the same setting regardless of the type of fault.
This is possible if the relays are connected to respond to delta voltages and currents. The delta quantities are defined as the difference between any two phase quantities, for example, Ea – Eb is the delta quantity between phases a and b.
In general, for a multiphase fault between phases x and y,
Ex-Ey/ Ix-Iy = IZ
where x and y can be a, b, or c and Z1 is the positive sequence impedance between the relay location and the fault. For ground distance relays, the faulted phase voltage, and a compensated faulted phase current must be used.
Ex / ( Ix+mI0) = Z1
where m is a constant depending on the line impedances, and I0 is the zero sequence current in the
transmission line. A full complement of relays consists of three phase distance relays and three ground
distance relays. This is the preferred protective scheme for high voltage and extra high voltage systems.
Pilot Protection
As can be seen from Fig. 9.33, step distance protection does not offer instantaneous clearing of faults over 100% of the line segment. In most cases this is unacceptable due to system stability considerations. To cover the 10–20% of the line not covered by Zone 1, the information regarding the location of the fault is transmitted from each terminal to the other terminal(s).
A communication channel is used for this transmission. These pilot channels can be over power line carrier, microwave, fiberoptic, or wire pilot. Although the underlying principles are the same regardless of the pilot channel, there are specific design details that are imposed by this choice.
Power line carrier uses the protected line itself as the channel, superimposing a high frequency signal on top of the 60 Hz power frequency. Since the line being protected is also the medium used to actuate the protective devices, a blocking signal is used.
This means that a trip will occur at both ends of the line unless a signal is received from the remote end.
Microwave or fiberoptic channels are independent of the transmission line being protected so a tripping signal can be used.
Wire pilot channels are limited by the impedance of the copper wire and are used at lower voltages where the distance between the terminals is not great, usually less than 10 miles.
Directional Comparison
The most common pilot relaying scheme in the U.S. is the directional comparison blocking scheme, using power line carrier. The fundamental principle upon which this scheme is based utilizes the fact that, at a given terminal, the direction of a fault either forward or backward is easily determined by a directional relay.
By transmitting this information to the remote end, and by applying appropriate logic, both ends can determine whether a fault is within the protected line or external to it. Since the power line itself is used as the communication medium, a blocking signal is used.
Transfer Tripping
If the communication channel is independent of the power line, a tripping scheme is a viable protection scheme. Using the same directional relay logic to determine the location of a fault, a tripping signal is sent to the remote end.
To increase security, there are several variations possible. A direct tripping signal can be sent, or additional underreaching or overreaching directional relays can be used to supervise the tripping function and increase security.
An underreaching relay sees less than 100% of the protected line, i.e., Zone 1. An overreaching relay sees beyond the protected line such as Zone 2 or 3.
Phase Comparison
Phase comparison is a differential scheme that compares the phase angle between the currents at the ends of the line. If the currents are essentially in phase, there is no fault in the protected section.
If these currents are essentially 180o out of phase, there is a fault within the line section. Any communication link can be used.
Pilot Wire
Pilot wire relaying is a form of differential line protection similar to phase comparison, except that the phase currents are compared over a pair of metallic wires.
The pilot channel is often a rented circuit from the local telephone company.
However, as the telephone companies are replacing their wired facilities with microwave or fiberoptics, this protection must be closely monitored.
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